1.2 Essential Elements of Tort

The plaintiff's four-step ladder (the exam's core — every negligence answer climbs it): DUTY — the law's obligation: the neighbour principle's frame (the reasonable foreseeability of harm to those closely and directly affected — the famous "neighbour" formulation: the persons so closely affected that one ought reasonably to have them in contemplation); BREACH — the standard's failure: the reasonable person test (the objective standard — not this defendant's personal care, but the ordinary careful person's); CAUSATION — the factual link (the but-for test: but for the act, would the harm have occurred?) and the legal link (the remoteness-and-foreseeability screens: the consequences too remote do not count); DAMAGE — the legally-recognised harm (the protected interests: person, property, reputation, the recognized heads). Plus the defences' gate (Unit 3.5 and Unit 6's frame): the elements negated or excused.