Define human rights and explain their nature, principles and scope.

Human rights are the rights every human being holds simply by being human — universal, inherent, inalienable and indivisible. The four defining qualities (the exam's list): (i) universality — they belong to all persons everywhere, without distinction; (ii) inherentness — they are not granted by any state or law; the state recognizes and protects, it does not create them; (iii) inalienability — they cannot be surrendered or taken away (though their exercise can be limited by law in defined, proportionate cases); (iv) indivisibility and interdependence — civil-political and economic-social-cultural rights stand or fall together. The working definition to quote: the rights recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948 as the "common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations" — the moral grammar the treaties then made legal. The principles' frame: equality and non-discrimination; participation and inclusion; accountability and the rule of law. The nature's debates: natural right vs. positive law; moral claim vs. legal entitlement — the modern answer: human rights are moral claims made effective through law (the constitutions and the treaties of Units 8-10). The scope: the personal scope (everyone — citizens and non-citizens; the groups' specific instruments: women, children, the disabled, migrant workers); the substantive scope (the three generations of Unit 6); the territorial scope (the extraterritorial reach debated in the Wall opinion…