5.13 Kharka (pasture land): the pasture commons — the grazing lands of the hills (the goth-

and-pastoral systems' base): held by villages and communities for common grazing, not for cultivation; the state's classification of kharka (the government and community classes); the modern pressures (the encroachment-and-fragmentation of the commons; the community-forestry regimes' relationship). The kharka as the commons' remnant in a tenure map otherwise flattened to individual title. Exam Focus Long question (the unit is one arc): "Explain the traditional land tenure systems of Nepal and trace their abolition" — the master table's spine + the detail paragraphs for the majors (birta, kipat, jamindari, guthi, rajya) + the reform arc's close (the raikar model's triumph). Short questions: birta; kipat and the Limbu communities; ukhada; mahajani; kharka. Trick areas: (i) Guthi is the ONE traditional tenure that survives — abolished- answer for guthi is wrong; (ii) Raikar was never "abolished" — it is the destination the others were converted INTO; (iii) The ukhada tenant's and the mohi's positions differ — ukhada under the (ex-)zamindars of the west, the mohi the general cultivating tenant (U6's Land Act regime); (iv) Rajya Rajauto is about the FEUDATORIES' political-land rights, not a cultivating tenancy — a different animal from jamindari's revenue intermediary.