Explain the theories of punishment with their critiques.

Punishment = the state's deliberate infliction of pain, deprivation or censure on a person convicted of an offence, through a legal process, as the crime's institutional answer. The analytical four (the definition's marks): an offence behind it, an intended suffering within it, an authorised agent inflicting it (the state's monopoly), and a justification claimed for it (the whole of punishment theory). The severity's scale (the modern ladder): censure (the admonition) → fine → community service → semi-custodial (the probation, the open prison) → imprisonment → life imprisonment (the capital punishment beyond Nepal's constitutional pale — the Constitution's Art 16(2): no law shall provide for capital punishment; the torture-and- inhuman-treatment bar of Art 22 — even the punishment's humane floor). Nepal's frame: the Muluki Criminal Code 2074's penalty catalogue + the Criminal Offences (Determination of Sentences and Execution) Act 2074's machinery. Punishment's sociology (the extra marks): the punishment as the social institution (Durkheim: the collective conscience's reaffirmation; Foucault: the body-to-the-soul's history — the scaffold's spectacle → the prison's discipline; Garland: the late-modern culture of control) — the Muluki Ain's caste-graded corporality to the 2074 codes' equal corrective penality: Nepal's own penal history.