17 D. Pitkin's full map (The Concept of Representation, 1967 — the scholarly anchor)

1. Formalistic representation (authorisation/accountability — the legal chain of empowerment); 2. Descriptive representation (the representative resembles the represented — mirrors of gender, caste, region); 3. Substantive representation (the representative acts for the represented — outcomes, interests); 4. Symbolic representation (the representative stands for the represented — flags, dignity, presence). The trade-offs: a legislature can be descriptively perfect and substantively deaf, or substantively responsive and descriptively narrow. Nepal's constitutional design bets on both at once — descriptive guarantees (PR list inclusion of women, Dalit, Adivasi Janajati, Khas Arya, Madhesi, Tharu, Muslim, backward regions — Art. 84(2); ≥3 women among each province's 8 NA members, plus Dalit and disability/minority seats — Art. 86(2)(a); at least one- third women in each party's parliamentary membership — Art. 84(8); local-level reserved posts) in the hope that descriptive presence yields substantive voice.