22 D. Mixed systems

Two families: 1. Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) — Germany, New Zealand: voters have two votes (constituency + party); overall result is made proportional — constituency seats are topped up from party lists to match the party vote. Best of both, proportional outcome. 2. Parallel/mixed-member majoritarian — constituency seats and list seats run side by side without compensation (Russia's old system; Japan's House of Representatives). Nepal's mixed system (know precisely): • House of Representatives — 275 = 165 FPTP + 110 PR (Art. 84(1)): voters cast two votes — one for a constituency candidate, one for a party's closed national list; the whole country is one PR constituency. • PR list design: inclusion requirements (women, Dalit, Adivasi Janajati, Khas Arya, Madhesi, Tharu, Muslim, backward regions — Art. 84(2); persons with disability — 84(3)); the statutory rule that lists be half women; the threshold — a party must win at least one FPTP seat or secure about 3% of the national PR vote to enter the PR seat allocation (House of Representatives Election Act 2074). • Why Nepal chose this mix (the post-conflict logic): FPTP for stable, accountable constituency members; PR as the peace-process guarantee — every significant group (including parties born of the conflict) enters the assembly; the combination of stability + inclusion is the system's constitutional purpose. • National Assembly:…