What did ILO Convention 169 bring to Nepali politics?3.

The concepts: unemployment (seeking work, finding none) vs underemployment (working far below capacity — the seasonal hill farm) vs disguised unemployment (five workers doing three workers' task — the classic family-farm condition). Nepal's measured unemployment runs around one in ten of the labour force (2017/18 Labour Force Survey), higher among youth — but the real story is that job-creation never kept pace with the youth bulge, and the pressure valve is migration. The great migration (facts to cite with hedges): • Annual labour-migration approvals have run in the hundreds of thousands in a normal recent year (surging past 700,000 in the post-COVID peak year) — chiefly to Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait, plus large unregulated movement to India under the open-border regime. • Remittances: around a quarter of GDP (at times approaching a third) — sustaining consumption, schooling and house-building nationwide; the World Bank's classification of Nepal as a top remittance-dependent economy. • Governance: the Foreign Employment Act 2064 (2007), the "free visa–free ticket" reform (2015), labour attachés, bilateral labour agreements; the regulator and welfare institutions (the Foreign Employment Board's welfare fund). • The social ledger — the sociology: village economies of the absent husband (Units 6.2, 4.3); "left-behind" children and elderly; women entering paid work and local leadership; debt- bondage to recruiters; the human cost —…