8 B. Criminal justice

• Object: to respond to public wrongs — offences against society (its order, security and values), prosecuted by the state even where the victim forgives (with statutory reconcilable- offence exceptions).• Parties:the state vs the accused (prosecution service; the victim as complainant/witness).• Outcome:punishment — and the theories of punishment (the jurisprudential payload — learn all five): 1. Retributive: punishment as deserved — justice restoring the moral balance (Kant's "an island's last murder before dissolution" — the categorical demand to punish guilt); just deserts. 2. Deterrent: punishment as threat — to the offender (special) and others (general): Beccaria (On Crimes and Punishments, 1764: certainty and promptitude outweighseverity — the Enlightenment's criminal-law manifesto) and Bentham (pain of punishment to exceed the pleasure of crime, no more). 3. Preventive/incapacitative: disable the dangerous — imprisonment, disqualification. 4. Reformative: the offender as corrigible — correction, education, reintegration; the juvenile-justice philosophy (Nepal's Children's Act tradition: reform over retribution for minors). 5. Restorative: repair — victim, offender, community (Nepal's mediation culture; compensation to victims; the Codes' reconciliation provisions).• Procedure (Nepal, in one line each): FIR/complaint → police investigation (with the Attorney General's/prosecution service's charge decision) → trial (presumption of innocence; the beyond reasonable doubt standard) → judgment and sentencing → appeal; the constitutional fair-trial guarantees throughout (counsel, no self-incrimination, no double jeopardy, no torture, speedy trial) — under…