Discuss (b) Palermo Protocols

War — organized, political violence between political units — remains IR's founding problem (Clausewitz: war as "the continuation of politics by other means"). The modern law frame: the UN Charter prohibits the threat or use of force (Article 2(4)), permitting force only in self-defence (Article 51) or with Security Council authorization — the collective-security design that has neither abolished war nor been abandoned (Unit 5 of Public International Law-I develops the law). Types: interstate war (declining), civil/intrastate war (the dominant form since 1945 — Nepal's own 1996– 2006 conflict an example), proxy, hybrid and cyber-enabled warfare; the "new wars" (Kaldor) blurring war, crime and identity violence. Causes (the layered answer): systemic (anarchy, power transitions, security dilemmas — Unit 2), domestic (regime type, diversionary incentives, state failure) and individual/ideational (leadership, nationalism, ideology). Peace's taxonomy: negative peace (absence of war) vs. positive peace (Galtung: presence of justice and structural non-violence); peacekeeping (consent-based, UN's signature instrument — Nepal a major troop contributor across continents), peacemaking (negotiated settlements — the 2006 Comprehensive Peace Accord as Nepal's instance), peacebuilding (institutional reconstruction to prevent relapse), and preventive diplomacy (Ghali's Agenda for Peace vocabulary). The exam point: peace is not war's absence but a construction — with institutions, development and justice as its materials.