3 Criminal Law after Codification

3.1 Muluki Ain, 1910 B.S. (1853 A.D.)Jung Bahadur Rana's epochal code — promulgated 1853–54 (with the 1910 B.S. dating as the fixed reference), Nepal's first general written law and among South Asia's earliest comprehensive national codes.1. Structure and reach: a single Ain covering crime, civil wrongs, land, family, procedure — the "country's law" (muluki ain) as one book; drafted by a commission of pandit-jurists drawing on dharmashastra, prior ains, and (it is often noted) Jung Bahadur's European tour exposure (France's Code Napoleon reputedly studied on his 1850 visit — an influence historians debate);2. The famous social classification: the Ain's preamble-architecture organized Nepali society into hierarchized categories (the sacred-thread wearers; the non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers; the enslavable castes; the "water-unacceptable" with untouchability at the base) — and punishment varied by the parties' caste, gender and status: homicide's compensation, penalties for adultery, and the treatment of offenders all graded accordingly. For the exam, hold both truths: revolutionary codification (equality before one text, publicity of the law, judicial predictability — the Ain even restricted royal arbitrariness by making ministers and royals answerable to its text) and reactionary hierarchy (caste-differentiated punishment and slavery's legal recognition);3. Criminal law content: homicide (intentional, accidental — with the bogh compensation traditions), theft, robbery, adultery (heavily criminalized with gender-asymmetric rules), witchcraft/sorcery accusations, cattle-theft; sanctions: fines, imprisonment, mutilation, capital punishment, enslavement, banishment,…