3 Intervention by Invitation

The principle: a state may request another's military assistance — consent as the Charter's bar to "use of force" being measured against the unwilling target: intervention by the consent of the sovereign is not against the sovereign. Its doctrines: 1. The invitation's validity: the government's invitation — and who is the government: the effective-control recognition test (the classic); the constitutional-legitimacy debate (the coups' invitations — the modern tendency requiring both effectiveness and constitutional pedigree); 2. The civil-war limit (the classical doctrine): no invitation where no functioning government exists or the conflict is a genuine civil war (the too-quick-governments doctrine — the post- colonial African practice's rule); the modern softening (the government's continuing right to seek aid against rebels — the Nicaragua dicta; the Congo (DRC) and Syria invitations as the competing streams: Syria's government inviting Russia/Iran (2015–) against the insurgency — the recognition politics' collision); 3. The scope limits: the invited force's confinement to the invited purposes; the territory-and- duration discipline; the withdrawal duty; 4. The invitations' modern corruption: the fabricated or coerced invitation (the "vacation invitations" of the annexation era — Ukraine 2022's pretexts — the doctrine's abuse teaching the verification demands).