Write on (d) Labeling theory

The pre-scientific and classical era: (i) the demonological/pre-classical view — crime as sin, devil-possession or God's test; the response expiatory (ordeal, oath, excommunication). (ii) The Classical School — the Enlightenment's rebellion: Beccaria (On Crimes and Punishments, 1764 — by name): law, not judges, must fix punishments; proportionality; certainty and celerity of punishment over severity; abolition of torture and capital punishment. Bentham: the hedonistic calculus — pain of punishment must outweigh pleasure of crime (the utilitarian root of deterrence). Crime = free will's product; the offender a rational chooser; punishment rational, measured, equal for all. (iii) The Neo-classical correction: free will is imperfect — children, the insane, the coerced cannot choose fully; mitigating categories enter. The school's legacy: criminal law's general part (legality, proportionality, responsibility) — and its blind spot: it explains the law, not the offender.