3 C. Functions of political parties (the classic list)

1. Linkage function — connect citizens to the state (Lawson & Merkl): aggregate and articulate interests, convert social demands into policy options;2. Nomination and candidate selection — the gatekeeping of public office;3. Mobilisation and political socialisation — educate and activate voters; simplify choices for the electorate;4. Policy formulation — manifestos, programmes, legislative agenda (the "party-in- government");5. Government formation and staffing — in parliamentary Nepal, the majority party/coalition forms the Council of Ministers (Art. 76); parties supply the personnel;6. Opposition and accountability — organised scrutiny of government; alternative government-in-waiting;7. Integration and legitimation — absorb new groups into the system, confer consent on outcomes; in diverse societies, parties are integration machinery (Nepal's PR list inclusion design — Art. 84(2) — works through parties);8. Conflict management — channel conflict into regulated electoral competition rather than street or armed struggle (Nepal's peace process as the master-case: a decade-long armed insurgency converted into party competition).