2 Humanitarian Intervention

The concept: the (claimed) right/obligation to use force to stop mass atrocities in another state without its consent — sovereignty's collision with humanity (IRD Unit 3's R2P story's first half).1. The classical era's claims: the 19th-century precedents (the powers' interventions to protect Christians in the Ottoman empire); the Cold-War silence (the veto's freeze);2. The 1990s' tragedies and the Kosovo test: Rwanda's abandonment, Srebrenica's shame; Kosovo 1999 — NATO's 78-day campaign without Council authorization: the Independent Commission's famous verdict "illegal but legitimate" — the doctrine's crisis in one phrase;3. The synthesis — R2P (2005 World Summit): the responsibility relocated from interveners to the sovereign: each state's duty to protect its people; international assistance; and timely-decisive collective action through the UN (the Security Council's monopoly restored — no unilateral humanitarian licence); the three pillars (IRD Unit 3's detail); Libya 2011 (Resolution 1973's protection mandate morphing to regime change — R2P's trust-wound); Syria (the veto's return — the intervention's illegality and the tragedy's interminable dialectic);4. The doctrinal position for the exam: unauthorized humanitarian force remains unlawful (the Charter's architecture unbroken; the ICJ's consistent posture); the R2P's answer is authorization, not licence — the debate's honest state.