1. Victimology's rise — the victim moved from witness to rights-holder (Art 21's constitutional anchoring; the Crime Victim Protection Act 2075).
2. Restorative justice — repairing harm through victim–offender–community encounter instead of state-only punishment.
3. Feminist criminology — gendered pathways, the victimisation–offence link (Unit 2.6).
4. Green criminology — environmental harms as criminology's object (poaching, pollution, climate displacement).
5. Digital/cyber criminology — online offences, and crime's migration to platforms (ETA 2063's offence face).
7. Comparative, transnational and critical criminology — trafficking, organised crime, transitional justice (Nepal's conflict-era crimes and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission's line — see Public International Law-II, Semester 4), and the critique of imprisonment's excess (decarceration).
8. Evidence-based practice — "what works" evaluations (the risk-need-responsivity family) steering corrections.