2.6 New Approaches — Feminist, Racial, Green, Digital Criminology

1. Feminist criminology — the discipline's male-default corrected: women's pathways into crime (abuse, survival, economic marginalisation), the victimisation–offending link, women's experiences of prison (children, stigma, the Bangkok Rules' world), and the critique that "equality" sentencing can harm women (the leniency debate). Names: Adler's masculinity thesis and Chesney-Lind's pathways rebuttal (names only).2. Racial/critical race criminology — over-policing and under-protection of minorities; the "war on drugs" as racialised control (the US literature); for Nepal, the caste lens: Dalits' over- representation as victims of violence and under-representation in protection — the criminology of Ratna Bahadur Bagchand (Unit 1's companion theme) and untouchability's enforcement gap.3. Green criminology — environmental harm as crime: poaching and wildlife trade, forest crime, pollution, quarrying and river-mining offences, climate displacement; Nepal's conservation rhino-poaching cycles and community-forestry guardianship as green-criminology experiments.4. Digital criminology — crime's platform migration: online fraud, identity theft, hacking, harassment and image-based abuse; the ETA 2063's offence provisions and the investigation's digital-evidence face (Procedural Law-II, this semester); the new spatial problem — the crime scene is now a server, and the guardian is a moderation algorithm.