The plaintiff's four-step ladder (the exam's core):
1. Duty — the law's obligation (the neighbour principle's frame: the reasonable foreseeability of harm to those closely affected — the famous "neighbour" formulation's line).
2. Breach — the standard's failure (the reasonable person's test — the objective standard).
3. Causation — the factual (the "but-for" test) and the legal (the remoteness-and-foreseeability screens) links.
4. Damage — the legally-recognised harm (the interest's protection — the recognised heads). The defences' gate (U2.3): the elements negated or excused — the wrong's justification faces.