3.1 Personal Factors

3.1.1 Mental ailments. The relationships between mental disorder and crime are specific, not general: psychoses (command hallucinations, paranoid states — violence risk concentrated in a small group; the insanity defences of Criminal Law-I), personality disorders (the psychopathy spectrum's link to recidivism; emotional instability), intellectual disability (suggestibility and exploitation — the false-confession risk), substance use disorders (the intoxication–violence and acquisitive-offence links), and trauma histories (abused children's elevated risks — the cycle). Nepal's deficits: forensic psychiatric services are scarce; courts rarely receive mental-health evidence; prison mental healthcare is minimal — the ailing mind travels from neglect to custody. 3.1.2 Physical ailments. Head injury and neurological impairment (impulse control), hormonal and neurochemical factors (contested), chronic pain and disability (economic marginalisation), sensory deficits (the old criminologists' stigmata debunked), and the general poverty–health–crime spiral where illness destroys livelihood and livelihood's loss removes restraint. The honestformulation: personal factors are dispositions and vulnerabilities — they raise probabilities, never certainties, and act only through the situational and structural terrain below.