3.2 Situational Factors

3.2.1 Family — the first criminogenic or protective field: broken homes and conflict (the classic broken-home literature — effects real but modest and mediated), harsh or inconsistent discipline, parental criminality and substance use (differential association's first classroom), abuse and neglect (the victim-to-offender pathway), and absent parents in the migration economy (Nepal's remittance villages — children of labour-migrant households). 3.2.2 School — the second socialising institution: failure and humiliation, truancy, exclusion (the pushout), unrecognised learning difficulties, and the school-to-street sequence; conversely school attachment as the strongest protective bond (Hirschi's commitment). 3.2.3 Peer group — the adolescent's decisive world: differential association's workshop (techniques and motives learned), delinquent gangs' cohesion and reputation economies, and the desistance flip — prosocial peers pull out of crime as effectively as deviant peers pulled in. 3.2.4 Neighborhood — social disorganization's terrain: collective efficacy's absence (nobody intervenes, nobody supervises), transition zones of the urbanising valley, informal control's collapse where anonymity replaces acquaintance. 3.2.5 Massmedia — imitation and scripts (violence modelling), the normalisation of drug trade and gangster glamour, copycat risk around suicide and violence reporting, and the algorithmic amplification of the digital era; the evidence supports modest, conditional effects — media is a translator, not a cause. 3.2.6 Religion and culture — the moral community's controls (belief as a bond) and, on the other side, criminogenic cultural practices:…