5.1 Concept, History of Environmental Protection in Nepal

1. The customary era — the communities' practices: the forests' sacred groves (the devari-and- guthi forests); the waters' reverence; the customary rules (the user groups, the elders' regulation).2. The state's first steps — the forestry's state control (the 1950s' nationalisation — the private forests' abolition: the conservation's paradox — the tenure's insecurity's degradation); the national parks' birth (the 1973 NPWC Act — the Chitwan's-and-the Himalayan parks' establishment).3. The planning era — the plans' environment chapters (the 1980s' awakening); the National Conservation Strategy (1988); the EPA 2054 (1997) — the first comprehensive statute (the EIA's birth, the pollution's control).4. The constitutional era — the 1990 interim-and-constitution's environment faces; the 2015 Constitution's robust catalogue (Art 30's right-and-compensation; Art 51(g)'s policies — the verified texts).5. The modern era — the EPA 2076 (2019) — the second-generation statute (the climate's inclusion — the carbon-trading faces; the polluter-pays instruments); the Forest Act 2076; the climate policies-and-NDC; the federal redistribution (the local governments' environmental functions).