4.4 Geopolitics, Water Resources and Cross-Border Energy Trade

Nepal's energy geography: rivers shared with India (and China on the north); power systems interconnected with India's grid; export markets therefore practically to the south, with transmission as statecraft.1. The treaty layer: Koshi, Gandak, Mahakali (Unit 5) — the historical bargains that shaped water and power relations.2. The trade layer: power trade agreements and cross-border interconnection frameworks with India; the long-term power-trade understanding enabling project-specific export PPAs.3. The geopolitics: hydropower as Nepal's strategic asset — export revenue, energy independence, and the balancing act between the two neighbours (the Chinese interconnection studied at feasibility level).4. The doctrine layer: equitable utilization, no-harm, and prior-notification duties (LAW5707's framework) discipline what sovereignty permits.